Kannada: A Living Classical Language

Kannada: A Living Classical Language

Linguistic identity in India is passing through period of crisis This crisis is an offshoot of globalization. Speech communities are seeking more space in the language politics of the country. Languages which are not included in the eighth schedule of the constitution of India are putting forward their case for inclusion in the list. Stateless languages are being considered for place of second official language of some states. Urdu and Sindhi are such languages. Tribal languages which are in list of endangered languages are fighting for a place in the school education. Now a new dimension is added to the scenario when an ancient language of India, Tamil claimed its place in the list of classical languages. It is stated that the plea to recognize Tamil as a classical language was made as early as 1887 by the scholar, Paruthi Mal Kalaignar, and the appeal had been repeatedly made ever since.

Colonial administration in India which replaced Mughal administration considered Persian and Arabic as classical languages. ‘The Mughal power was something the British had to contend with. Since there had been established widespread conventions to look upon Persian, Arabic, and Sanskrit as languages of great value in terms of religious loyalty, it was easy for them to treat these languages as classical. Moreover, an essential belief relating to the status of a classical language in Europe has been to look at them as the historical stages that may now be not in use. Classical Greek and Latin were "dead" languages, enriching the living ones with their vocabulary, texts, and literature, etc. Sanskrit really fitted this bill, whereas Persian and Arabic carried their day because of the Mughal patronage and Muslim loyalty. Politics and religion were important ingredients that strengthened their original European notion of what constituted a classical language.’(M.S.Thirumalai, ‘Declaring a Language Classical’, Language in India 2004)

Classical Language: How it is defined

Linguists all over the world agree that a language is termed Classical when the literature written in that language is valuable but the language is studied only through the written documents because it ceases to have native speakers. Ancient Greek, Latin, Sanskrit are such Classical languages. There is abundant literature written in these Languages. It is valuable for mankind. But no one speaks these languages as his or her first language. These languages are second languages for many scholars through out the world. They learn these languages through the written forms of these languages. Many of the features attributed to a natural Language became inoperative in the case of Classical Languages because they don’t have a spoken variety. Changes, both diachronic and synchronic which are common to a natural language are not found in Classical language. ( Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (ed) Asher M.B, Vol. iii Pp) If we stick on to this definition of a Classical Language no Indian Language except Sanskrit fulfills the criteria for terming that language as a Classical Language.

But a debate is going on now. Sanskrit is being studied as a Classical language in many North American and European Universities. In India Sanskrit is considered a Classical Language but not declared as a Classical Language by the State. On the contrary the Central Sahitya academy has included Sanskrit in the list of languages for which the academy gives its annual awards for best book. It means that the academy considers Sanskrit as a creative language, i.e. as a language of expression, though through written form.

Classical Language: Need for a new definition

There is a need to redefine a Classical language. The government of India has established certain criteria with the help of Sahitya Academy for declaring a language as classical language. The criteria, according to a Cabinet report, include that

1. A language should be of great antiquity and should have its early texts dating back at least 1,000 years.

2. This language should also have a body of ancient literature and texts considered a valuable heritage;

3. Its literary tradition should be original and not borrowed from another speech or community, and its literature must be distinct from modern. However, there may also be a discontinuity between the classical language and its later forms or of its offshoots like Latin versus Roman, Sanskrit-Pali versus Prakrits, and Modern Indo-Aryan."

A new definition is made to accommodate Tamil in the list of Classical languages. In fact this debate began with a note from Prof. George L. Hart, Chair, Dept. of South and South Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley. (Incidentally he is also a Professor of Tamil in that University) He published a note on the web in April, 2000 making a case for Tamil. In his note he says “to qualify as a classical tradition, a language must fit several criteria: it should be ancient, it should be an independent tradition that arose mostly on its own not as an offshoot of any other tradition, and it must have a large and extremely rich body of ancient literature.” Professor Hart consolidates his argument with the following observation. ‘‘Tamil meets each of these requirements. It is extremely old (as old as Latin as and older than Arabic); it arose as an entirely independent tradition, with almost no influence from Sanskrit or other languages; and its ancient literature is indescribably vast and rich.”(annex.)

The criteria adopted by the Central Government on the basis of a report from the central Sahitya Academy for declaring Tamil as a Classical Language are same as those stipulated by Professor Hart. If we accept this stipulation as guidelines then a necessary corollary is to include any other Language which fulfills these conditions in the list of Classical languages.

A Case for Kannada

Kannada is one such language. It fulfills all these conditions.1) Kannada is an ancient Language. As a member of the Dravidian Language family its life span has crossed two thousand years. Kannada branched out from the proto-Dravidian family probably in 6-5 c. B.C. Scholars have proved that Kannada was the first major Language after Tulu to become an independent Language. Its oldest dateable recorded word ‘isila’ is found in the Brahmagiri inscription of Ashoka which is located in Karnataka.”it can be shown that the place name Isila occurring in the first line of the Brahmagiri edict of Asoka,where in his mahatmas resided,is a prakritization of the Kannada word esil whose Tamil cognate is eyil meaning fort of fortified town;the name Eyilnadu occurs in two Tamil inscriptions of Kolar district of Mysore state’ (Narasimhachar.D.L. Religion and society of Karnataka under the Satavahanas KTA.,Bangalore 1968,p110) This inscription is from 3^rd century B.C. ‘isila’ is a place name. This city was in a place in present day mid Karnataka. This evidence suggests that Kannada was a spoken Language in that area by that time .Travel records of many European and Chinese visitors depict many place names of Karnataka .Ptolemy, the Greek traveler visited Karnataka in the early part of the first millennium. His travelogue has many place names of Karnataka. Some of these cities exist even today.They are spread over in the area between River Bhima and Banavasi.Nagarouris is Nagarur,Tabaso is Tavasi in Belgaum Dist. Inde is Indi in Bijapur Dist. Tiri Pangalida is gadahingaja near Kollapur,Hippo koura is Huvina hipparige in Belguam dist.(Govinda Pai.M. Ptolemy’s Hippokoura. Divige ,Pp98-103)

Gata sapthashati a work attributed to Hala, a Shatavahana king was composed in 1^st cen.B.C. There are many Kannada words in this work. Attaa(ate+mother-in-law),tuppa(ghee),potte(belly)phalahi(hatti=cotton) are some such Kannada words.

Huang tsang and Fahiyan from China came to Karnataka and stayed in many centers of learning. Huang tsang visited South India in 640 A.D. He describes the valor of Pulikeshi’s army .Pulikeshi established trade links with Iran. Khusro the second of Iran sent his ambassador to Pulikeshi’s court. A famous painting in the caves of Ajanta depicts the scene where Pulikeshi is greeting the ambassador from Iran.

It is believed that Chan school of Buddhism which flourished in China took its roots from Vajrayana Buddhist school of Karnataka. This Buddhist school had its center in Balligave (Dist.Shimoga). Buddhism had its roots in Karnataka. Archeological surveys have unearthed a Buddishst stupa and complex at Sannati in Gulbarga Dist of Karnataka.

Scholars have shown that some Greek plays of the early Christian era have Kannada words and sentences. The action of a Greek play of 2^nd century A.D. takes place in coastal Karnataka. Few dialogues in this play are not in Greek. It is argued that these non-Greek words are from Kannada.

In the first millennium the northern border of Kannada speaking land was extended up to the river Narmada .The famous battle between Pulikeshi,(600 A.D) the second and Sri Harasha of Kanouj was fought on the banks of Narmada .There is a revenue taluk in Vidrabha region of Maharashtra with a name ‘Kannada’ .Rulers of many dynasties from Karnataka ruled many parts of northern and central parts of modern India. There are evidences to prove that the earlier rulers of Nepal were fro Karnataka. The priests of Lord Pashupathinath temple at Katmandu hail from Karnataka even to this day. Dr.Chidanada Murthy has done extensive research to bring forth the cultural and political relations that existed between Karnataka and Nepal. Kannada speaking people who went with these rulers from Karnataka to Mithila (northern part of present day Bihar) have settled in those parts of India and could be identified even to this day. Eastern Gangs of Karnataka origin ruled in Orissa. These rulers built the famous Lingaraja temple complex of Bhuvaneshwara. Chalukys,a royal dynasty of Karnataka origin (11-12 c. A.D) ruled in Gujarat and Senas (11-12 c.A.D) in Bengal. It is undisputed fact that the rulers from these dynasties were from Karnataka. These facts prove that the Kannada triune –land, people and language is as old as Tamil.

2) Kannada literature has an independent tradition. Critics have established that the uniqueness of Kannada literary tradition is that it has continuously strived to be different from Sanskrit literary tradition. Deviations from Sanskrit literary tradition are more important than concurrences. The very first Kannada work on poetics and grammar, Kavirajamarga (Poet’s royal path) clearly establishes the separate identity of Kannada language and literary tradition. This work(9^th century) written by Srivijaya in the court of the Rashtrakuta king Nrupatunga identifies the hegemony of Sanskrit and tries to establish the cultural identity of Kannada language, land and the speakers of Kannada language. Srivijaya lists many literary works written in Kannada and mentions the name of writers who wrote in Kannada before his time. Most of these works are lost. But later writers and compilers have quoted extensively from these works. Sri vijaya names some of these writers. Vimalodaya, Candra and Lokapala are some such names. This work being a treatise on poetics cites Kannada Examples from contemporary works. It is interesting to note that Prof. Sheldon Pollok of University of Chicago had made an in depth study of Kavirajamarga. For him this work represents the unique effort to create a native standard language to oppose and replace the hegemony of both Sanskrit and Prakrits.

Literary tradition in Kannada took its root not through independent works from poets, but it in inscriptional compositions. We come across scores of inscriptions with compositions of high literary merit. The inscription of Shravanabelagola which praises a Jain saint who renounced this world and the inscription of Badami which extols the heroics of a leader are a case in point. These two inscriptions of 7^th and 8^th c. A.D herald the inbuilt traits of Kannada literature of the next three centuries.

The first major poet of Kannada, Pampa (902 A.D) wrote his works in the court of Arikesari the second of the Chalukya dynasty. The city from where Pampa wrote his two epics is now in modern day Andhra Pradesh.His birth place Annigeri is in Karnataka.his mother Abbanabbe hailed from this place.Annigeri still exists by the name in Gadag Dist. Of Karnataka. Pampa wrote Vikramarjuna vijaya (based on Mahabharata) and Adipurana (story of the first Jaina Theerhankara Vrshaba deva) Pampa’s greatness as poet is not attributed to the fact that he took stories from Sanskrit sources but to his conscious effort to create his own identity in poetic tradition. In fact the poetic way of fusing the history with the contemporary is the contribution of Pampa. Though his epic is based on Mahabharata he equates the deeds of the hero Arjuna with the heroics of his contemporary king Arikesari, the second, and a Chalukyan king. Pampa makes History a signifier through which contemporary events are signified. This mode of expression is unique for literature of any Indian Language. Pampa crated a poetic idiom for Kannada. His influence on the poets is acknowledged each one of them.

Bhakti movement in south India took deep roots in Karnataka in the form of Veera shaiva tradition. It was a socio-religious movement. Its oral expressions are called Vacanas (sayings). Vacana literature has no parallels in any Indian language. Its uniqueness is that it foregrounds the little tradition against the great tradition which had its expression through Sanskrit. Vacanas embody a unique way of communicating with the God. The language used in Vacanas is fresh and devoid of all clichés. This form of literature clearly gives an edge to Kannada literature on any other Indian language.

Vacana writing was a part of social activism. These writers were fighting for a cause. Social equality was their aim. It is interesting to note that of the 350 plus Vacana writers documented from that period many belong to the lower strata of the society. They upheld the dignity of labour. The main tenets of this Bhakti movement centers round the concept of social mobility. This culminated in an inter caste marriage between an untouchable boy and a Brahmin girl. This event created an unprecedented chain of events witnessed in the History of Karnataka. The monotheistic agenda which they proposed was an instrument to overcome the evils of caste system. These poets were not mere Social activists; they were scholars in their own right. They quote extensively from various sources on Philosophical discourse. The Vacana literature was the experiment in fusing art with social commitment . Allamaprabhu had his training in Natha cult.But he became the intellectual leader of this movement .He is the de facto chairman of the virtual assembley of these saints called Anubhava Mantapa. Basavanna was an administrator .He played a leading role in this socio-religious Movemnt.

Vacana movement is unique in many ways. It brought forth the concept of gender equity. It called upon to do away with the discrimination on the basis of gender. Many (more than thirty five) women writers wrote Vacanas espousing the social equality. Akka Mahadevi who like Meera or Godha considered God (Chenna mallikarjuna)as his life partner and came out of the wedlock with the king Kaushika. This rebellious deed echoes in her Vacanas. Kalavve one of these women writers was a dalit women.

It is interesting to note that translations from Vacana Literature are included in various anthologies representing World Literature. A.K.Ramanujan has translated a selection of Vacanas into English and published under the name ‘The speaking of Shiva’. Kamil Zvalebil a Dravidian Linguist of high repute has recently rendered a few Vacanas into English. Scholars from various European Languages have found an interesting international site in Vacana literature and working on various translations. There are scores of European websites which are dedicated to give information on Vacana movement and Literature.

A parallel Bhakti movement took shape in Vijanagara period. Vaishnava (Haridasa=Servents of Vishnu,the god) saints wrote keertanas. This keertana tradition gave birth to a singing mode which is now called Karnataka Sangeeta. Purandara dasa of this Haridsa tradition is considered the forefather of Karnataka sangeeta. Kanakadasa was poet of high repute. He allegorizes the rift between the haves and have-nots in a story which depicts a tussle for supremacy between Ragi( a staple food of the poor) and Rice. Haridasa tradition is live and vibrant even to this day. People from all walks of life, including women, irrespective of their caste barriers follow the tenets of this creed. There are even Muslim saints in this tradition.

Bhakti movement influenced the main stream poets to a great extant. Their poetic idiom

Another main feature of Kannada writing tradition is the abundance of works which canonize various knowledge sources. Apart from works on grammar, poetics, metrics there are scores of independent works dealing with many aspects of human life. Works on Medicine, Mathematics, Horse breeding, Culinary art are some such sources. There are encyclopedias giving information on many subjects.Viveka Cintmani (15^th C) is one such work.

There is one more aspect of Kannada Literary tradition which is both interesting and important for the scholars of Indian Literature. Stories of Pancatantra are passed on in two distinct traditions. Of these two traditions one attributed to Vasubhaga bhatta is completely lost in Sanskrit . Literatures of various Indian Languages do not retain this tradition of stories except Kannada. Durgasimha of 13^th c. A.D. in his Kannada Pancantra follows the Vasubhagabhatta’s tradition. This literary work in Kannada is the only Indian source for this lost tradition of Vasubaga bhatta.

3) Kannada literature is vast. It comprises of both oral and written components. Its epigraphical material is abundant and is full of cultural elements. Karnataka has a record number of inscriptions. Over 25,000 of these inscriptions written in Kannada language and script are found in various parts of Karnataka,Maharashtra,Tamilnadu and Andra pradesh. There are hundreds of inscriptions of Kannada language written in various other scripts .The inscriptions written either on stone or copper plates have been recorded and studied. Though Tamilnadu has equal number of inscriptions, the content and the style of language used in those inscriptions lacks the variety. Karnataka has Hero stones (Memorials for the unknown heroes who fought and laid their lives for a social cause), Mahasathi stones (Memorials for the women who immolated themselves with the bodies of their husbands brought from the battle field) and inscriptions depicting the various grants given to temples and individuals. Karnataka historians rely on this inscription to reconstruct the social, political and cultural History of this land. Many of these inscriptions contain beautiful literary composition. There are many instances where the main stream poets, like Ranna and Janna (10th century A.D), have written the texts of inscriptions. The tradition of installing the inscriptions for various purposes is unbroken in Karnataka, till the advent of modern modes of communications. No other Indian Language has so much of written material on stones and copper plates.

The First dateable inscription in Kannada script is from 450.A.D. This is found in a small village, Halmidi in Hassan district of Karnataka. It extols the deeds of a hero and mentions land grant made to him. The name of this place (palmidi) is retained in tact even to this day except for the sound change of word initial ‘p’ to ‘h’

Kannada script is derived from Brahmi. Apart from Siddha matrika script of Gupta period no other Indian script except Kannada script has such long history of writing. The corpus of writing in Kannada script produced during in these centuries runs for several volumes of printed material. The artistic nature of this script is appreciated many scholars. ‘The Courier’ ,the official document of UNESCO,writing on Asian Scripts(1964,p16) records Kannada script as one of major scripts of world, on the authority of David Derringer, a great scholar.The document even reproduces an inscription from the Hoysala period(13^th c.A.D)

Kannada literature is rich in the sense that it is not mere creative literature but contains canonized local knowledge systems. There are books on grammatical tradition, Dictionaries, Encyclopedias and books on veterinary science, agriculture, medicine all these facts indicate that Kannada is a fit candidate to be declared as a Classical Language.

There is a need to look at this issue from a different perspective. Languages like Tamil, Kannada have lived a long life. If we take the time frame of the writing systems of the world a few have survived to see the third millennium. Apart from Hebrew only Chinese writing system has history of three millennia. If we consider the case of modern Indian languages only Tamil and Kannada have a long history of writing. Both have written records dating from the first millennium. No other modern Indian language has such an unbroken history of writing. If we extend this probe in to global level Kannada claims its place among the first ten languages with a history of continuous writing system of all the living languages of the world.

Languages like Tamil and Kannada have stood the test of time. They were languages of the people in the first millennium. They continued to be the media of expression in the new world. Now they are in the third millennium holding their fort against all the onslaughts of the technology. These criteria should be included in the definition of a Living Classical Language.

Kannada University

Vidyaranya

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